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Contextualizing Shakespeare:
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Frank Ceruzzi
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Several years ago, I helped to create a one-semester “World of Shakespeare” elective at my high school. After teaching the course for a second time, I began to realize that while students could demonstrate a strong understanding of Shakespeare (i.e., his life, his use of language, his patterns of images, etc.), they weren’t learning much about the world of Shakespeare—that is to say, the historical and social contexts which helped give life to his plays. What follows is a series of primary sources, activities, and assessments that I have found useful for teaching two of the plays in my elective: The Taming of the Shrew and Richard III. For each of the plays, I’ve tried to select a few social and historical sources from the institute that seemed particularly engaging or illuminating for classroom study. For the section on Richard III, a teacher could condense or expand the selections from Machiavelli’s The Prince; if I had time, I would certainly be in favor of having students read several chapters of Machiavelli’s text. In addition, for The Taming of the Shrew activities and essay topics, I have included a few modern critical voices to help students make connections between Elizabethan England and their own lives. The essay topics can be adapted rather easily. My goal here was to create assignments that would combine the social and historical sources from the institute with what we, as English teachers, ask our students to do in the classroom every day: to examine language, to trace patterns of images, to investigate characters, etc. I hope that you will find these materials useful and engaging.
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Classroom Activities: 1. A good place to begin is to engage students with a discussion of “wooing” and the “battle of the sexes” in the high school—what do students observe everyday in the cafeteria, hallways and classrooms? Students might feel somewhat uncomfortable sharing personal examples, but you can move the discussion forward by talking about films like 10 Things I Hate About You, a modern-day Taming. 2. Next, I would turn my attention to Petruchio’s plan to “woo” Katherine (1.2), and then to Katherine’s first appearance on stage (2.1). Here I would ask students to read the following passage from Alex Niccholes’ “A Discourse of Marriage and Wiving” (1615), where Niccholes provides advice for selecting a proper mate/wife. This type of “marriage manual” was popular in Elizabethan England and provides an illuminating look at the social structures surrounding mating and marriage: The first aim that I would give to him, that would adventure this voyage (for marriage is an adventure, for whosoever marries, adventures; he adventures his peace, his freedom, his liberty, his body; yea, and sometimes his soul too,) is, that in his election, after he hath made choice of his wife, which ever I would have grounded upon some of these promising likelihoods, viz. That she be of a sober and mild aspect, courteous behavior, decent carriage, of a fixed eye, constant look, and unaffected gait, the contrary being oftentimes signs of ill portent and consequence; for as the common saying is ‘An honest woman dwells at the sign of an honest countenance;’ and wild looks (for the most part) accompany wild conditions. . .
Questions for Discussion:
Near the end of the play, I might ask students to return to this passage and reassess its meaning. Here I might focus particular attention on the first part of the quotation: How does Petruchio go on an “adventure” in this play? Does he, in fact, “adventure” his peace, his freedom, and his soul? In what ways?
“Now as concerning the wife’s duty. What shall become her? Shall she abuse the gentleness and humanity of her husband, and, at her pleasure, turn all things upside down? No, surely; for that is far repugnant against God’s commandment; for thus doth St. Peter preach to them, Ye wives, be ye in subjection to obey your husband. . . For this surely doth nourish concord very much, when the wife is ready at hand at her husband’s commandment; when she will apply herself to his will. . .”
Is this what Shakespeare’s play attempts to dramatize on stage? How do we know? This passage certainly generated some interesting discussion in my own classroom, although I had some difficulty getting students to focus on specific moments from the text. Therefore, you might want to select quotations from the play for students to discuss. For example, in her article “The Taming of the Shrew: A Modern Perspective,” Karen Newman explains that Petruchio compares taming Kate to training a falcon and that Shakespeare purposefully “peppers Petruchio’s speech with the technical language of hawk taming.” Consider the following quotation from Act IV of the play:
Petruchio: My falcon now is sharp and passing empty, And, till she stoop, she must not be full-gorged,rged,rged, For then she never looks upon her lure. (4.1, 191-193)-193)-193)
4. Finally, I would ask students to engage in a close reading of Kate’s final speech in light of the primary sources they have read and their overall understanding of the play. This will serve as a springboard for one of their assessment options (see essay topic #1).
Kate. Fie, fie! unknit that threatening unkind
brow,
Questions for Discussion:
How do you interpret this speech? Has Kate conformed to what we read in our primary sources (that is, has she “applied” herself to her husband’s “will”)? Or is she just playing the part of the obedient wife? How do you know? Refer to specific lines and images from the speech to support your opinion.
Essay Topics: 1. Some critics have accepted Kate’s final speech as evidence that she has been tamed. Others believe that it must be understood ironically as a strategy for living peacefully within patriarchal culture (Karen Newman). Still others, like Harold Bloom, argue that the speech’s hyperbolic language and redundancy show that Kate is advising women how to rule absolutely while feigning obedience. Read closely Kate’s final speech in the play. Based on our discussions, the historical sources that you have read, and your overall understanding of the play, how do you interpret these final lines of the play? Be sure to support your argument with specific words, phrases and images from the speech itself. 2. “What Petruchio wants, and ends up with, is a Katherine of unbroken spirit and gaiety who has suffered only minor physical discomfort and who has learned the value of self-control and of caring about someone other than herself.”--Anne Barton Interpret the above quotation and explain whether you agree or disagree with it and why. Then, use specific and relevant evidence from the text to support your thesis. Be sure to include at least one specific reference to the primary sources that we read.
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Classroom Activities: 1. Perhaps one of the most engaging primary texts for discussing Shakespeare’s Richard III is Machiavelli’s The Prince (1515). I believe that this is best used once students are at least half way through the play. Before jumping into Machiavelli’s text, however, I would engage students in a discussion of moments where Richard “proves a villain” throughout the play. Two particular moments come to mind immediately: Richard’s wooing of Lady Anne and his betrayal of Hastings (both passages here are spoken by Richard):
A) If thy revengeful heart cannot forgive, Lo, here I lend thee this sharp-pointed sword, Which if thou please to hide in this true breast And let the soul forth that adoreth thee, I lay it naked to thy deadly stroke And humbly beg the death upon my knee. (1.2, 190-195)
B) [Enter Richard and Buckingham] I pray you all, tell me what they deserve That do conspire my death with devilish plots Of damned witchcraft, and that have prevailed Upon my body with their hellish charms? (3.4, 60-63)
In these two passages, timing and circumstance play a role, as does Richard’s rhetoric. Both excerpts ask students to see how Richard is playing the part of a villain, much like an actor on a stage. Here you might discuss Shakespeare’s use of language and dramatic irony to create two powerful dramatic moments. 2. Introducing Machiavelli can be helpful in raising the curtain to the larger political stage of the time period. The following excerpt from Chapter VIII of The Prince is particularly engaging, for it focuses on one specific historical figure, Oliverotto da Fermo, before ending with several broader philosophical ideas about rulers and power:
In our times, during
the rule of Alexander the Sixth, Oliverotto da Fermo, having been
left an orphan many years before, was brought up by his maternal
uncle, Giovanni Fogliani, and in the early days of his youth sent to
fight under Pagolo Vitelli, that, being trained under his
discipline, he might attain some high position in the military
profession. After Pagolo died, he fought under his brother
Vitellozzo,
and in a very short time, being endowed with wit and a vigorous body
and mind, he became the first man in his profession. But it
appearing a paltry thing to serve under others, he resolved, with
the aid of some citizens of Fermo, to whom the slavery of their
country was dearer than its liberty, and with the help of the
Vitelleschi, to
seize Fermo. So he wrote to Giovanni Fogliani that, having been away
from home for many years, he wished to visit him and his city, and
in some measure to look upon his patrimony; and although he had not
laboured to acquire anything except honour, yet, in order that the
citizens should see he had not spent his time in vain, he desired to
come honourably, so would be accompanied by one hundred horsemen,
his friends and retainers; and he entreated Giovanni to arrange that
he should be received honourably by the Fermians, all of which would
be not only to his honour, but also to that of Giovanni himself, who
had brought him up.
Hence it is to be
remarked that, in seizing a state, the usurper ought to examine
closely into all those injuries which it is necessary for him to
inflict, and to do them all at one stroke so as not to have to
repeat them daily; and thus by not unsettling men he will be able to
reassure them, and win them to himself by benefits. He who does
otherwise, either from timidity or evil advice, is always compelled
to keep the knife in his hand; neither can he rely on his subjects,
nor can they attach themselves to him, owing to their continued and
repeated wrongs. For injuries ought to be done all at one time, so
that, being tasted less, they offend less; benefits ought to be
given
little by little, so that the flavour of them may last longer.
Although this is a long passage, it can be easily broken down for students: 1. Begin a discussion of this passage by asking students to characterize Oliverotto. What is he like as a “character”? How might he speak if he were on stage? 2. Next, you can ask students to compare and contrast Machiavelli’s discussion of Oliverotto with Shakespeare’s portrayal of Richard III (here you might want to direct students to specific scenes to help keep the discussion going). 3. Finally, have students examine the final two paragraphs of the passage, thinking carefully about Machiavelli’s general advice to a ruler. Does Richard abide by these political principles? Why or why not?
These discussion questions could also be
combined to create an engaging final essay assignment for the play
(see essay topic #1).
Essay Topics:
1. Compare and contrast Machiavelli’s discussion of Oliverotto da Fermo and Shakespeare’s portrayal of Richard III. Refer to examples from The Prince and from the play. In addition, be sure to focus specific attention on the last two paragraphs of the passage. Does Richard follow Machiavelli’s political advice? Why or why not?
2. In the opening speech of the play, Richard speaks directly to the audience and says: “I am determined to be a villain.” Indeed, part of the appeal of watching (or reading) this play is to see how Richard will carry out his dastardly deeds.
In class, we often discuss topics like “What makes someone a hero?” Your assignment is to develop a definition of the word “villain” and then to examine (through the use of specific examples, lines and images from the play) how Richard does and does not fit your definition of the word. Your essay must also incorporate at least one specific reference to The Prince. Does Machiavelli’s text help us to see Richard as more or less of a villain? Explain your answer.
3. Create an imaginary dialogue between Oliverotto da Fermo and Richard III. Develop your own creative setting and set of circumstances for them to meet (include stage directions). What would these two characters focus on in their dialogue? What advice might they give each other? Write at least twenty lines of dialogue for each character.
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Machiavelli, Niccolò. The Prince. Trans. George Bull. New York: Penguin Classics, 1995. Newman, Karen. “The Taming of the Shrew: A Modern Perspective.” In The Taming of the Shrew Square Press, 1992. Shakespeare, William. Richard III. New York: Washington Square Press, 1996. Shakespeare, William. The Taming of the Shrew.w. New York: Washington Square Press, 1992.
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